Discourse means ‘pieces of language longer than a sentence’. Some words and expressions are used to show how discourse is constructed. They can show the connection between what a speaker is saying and what has already been said or what is going to be said; they can help to make clear the structure of what is being said; they can indicate what speakers think about what they are saying or what others have said. There are a very large number of these ‘discourse markers’, and it is impossible to give a complete list in a few pages. Here are a few of the most common examples. Some of these words and expressions have more than one use; for more information, look in a good dictionary. Some discourse markers are used mostly in informal speech or writing; others are more common in a formal style. Note that a discourse marker usually comes at the beginning of a clause.
1 focusing and linking
with reference to, talking/speaking of/about, regarding, as regards, as far as … is concerned, as for
These expressions focus attention on what is going to be said, by announcing the subject in advance. Some of them also make a link with previous discourse, by referring back to what was said before.
“With reference to” is a very formal expression used mainly at the beginning of business letters.
With reference to your letter of 17 March, I am pleased to inform you …
Speaking/talking of/about … is used to make a link with what has just been said. It can help a speaker to change the subject.
I saw Max and Lucy today. You know, she Talking of Max, did you know he’s going to Australia?
Regarding can come at the beginning of a piece of discourse.
Hello, John. Now, look, regarding those sales figures I really don’t think …
As regards and as far as … is concerned usually announce a change of subject by the speaker/writer.
… there are no problems about production. Now as regards marketing …
… about production. As far as marketing is concerned, I think …
People sometimes leave out “is concerned” after “as far as” … This is usually considered incorrect.
As far as the new development plan, I think we ought to be very careful.
As for often suggests a lack of interest or dislike.
I’ve invited Andy and Bob. As for Stephen, I never want to see him again.
2 balancing contrasting points
n on the one hand (formal), on the other hand’, while; whereas
These expressions are used to balance two facts or ideas that contrast, but do
not contradict each other.
Arranged marriages are common in many Middle Eastern countries. In the West, on the other hand, they are unusual.
On the one hand, we need to reduce costs. On the other hand, investment… I like the mountains, while/whereas my wife prefers the seaside.
While and whereas can be put before the first of the contrasting points. While/Whereas some languages have 30 or more different vowel sounds, others have five or less.
For a comparison of on the other hand and on the contrary, see contrary.
3 emphasizing a contrast
however; nevertheless; nonetheless; mind you; still; yet; in spite of this! that; despite this I that
However, nevertheless
and nonetheless emphasise the fact that the second point contrasts with the first. Nevertheless is very formal.
Britain came last in the World Children’s Games. However, we did have one success, with Annie Smith’s world record in the sack race.
It was an oppressive dictatorship, but nevertheless it ensured stability. Mind you (less formal) and still introduce the contrasting point as an afterthought.
I don’t like the job much. Mind you / Still, the money’s OK.
Yet, still, in spite of this! that
and despite this/that (more formal) can be used to suggest that something is surprising, in view of what was said before.
He says he’s a socialist, and yet he owns three houses and drives a Rolls.
The train was an hour late. In spite of this, I managed to get to the meeting in time, (OR … I still managed to get…)
4 similarity
similarly; in the same way; just as These are most common in a formal style.
The roads are usually very crowded at the beginning of the holiday season. Similarly, there are often serious traffic jams at the end of the holidays.
James Carter did everything he could to educate his children. In the same way, they in turn put a high value on their own children’s education.
Just as the Greeks looked down on the Romans, the Romans looked down on their uncivilised neighbours.
5 concession and counter-argument
concession: it is true; certainly; of course; granted; if; may; stressed auxiliaries.
? counter-argument: however; even so; but; nevertheless; nonetheless; all the same; still
These expressions are used in a three-part structure: (1) there is discussion of facts that point in a certain direction; (2) it is agreed (the concession) that a particular contradictory fact points the other way; (3) but the speaker/writer dismisses this and returns to the original direction of argument.
… cannot agree with colonialism. It is true that the British may have done some good in India. Even so, colonialism is basically evil.
… incapable of lasting relationships with women. Certainly, several women loved him, and he was married twice. All the same, the women closest to him were invariably deeply unhappy.
Very few people understood Einstein’s theory. Of course, everybody had heard of him, and a fair number of people knew the word ‘relativity’. But hardly anybody could tell you what he had actually said.
I’m not impressed by her work. Granted, she writes like an angel. But she doesn’t write about anything of any interest.
It was a successfid party. The Scottish cousins, if a little surprised by the family’s behaviour, were nonetheless impressed by the friendly welcome they received.
I’m glad to have a place of my own. It’s true it’s a bit small, and it’s a long way from the centre, and it does need a lot of repairs done. Still, it’s home.
For other uses of still, see still, yet and already: time. For other uses of of course, see of course.
6 contradicting
on the contrary; quite the opposite
These expressions can contradict a suggestion made by another speaker.
Interesting lecture? discourse markers On the contrary / Quite the opposite, it was a complete waste of time.
They can also be used when a speaker/writer strengthens a negative statement which he/she has just made.
She did not allow the accident to discourage her. On the contrary / Quite the opposite, she began to work twice as hard.
For a comparison of on the contrary and on the other hand, see contrary.
7 dismissal of previous discourse
at least; anyway, anyhow; at any rate; in any case
At least
can suggest that one thing is certain or all right, even if everything else is unsatisfactory.
The car’s completely smashed up -1 don’t know what we’re going to do.
At least nobody was hurt.
The other four expressions are used (mostly informally) to mean ‘What was said before doesn’t matter – the main point is as follows’.
I’m not sure what time I’ll arrive, maybe seven or eight. Anyway /Anyhow / At any rate / In any case, I’ll certainly be there before eight thirty.
Note that anyway is not the same as in any way, which means ‘by any method’.
Can I help you in any way?
8 change of subject
by the way, incidentally; right; all right; now; OK
By the way
and incidentally are used to introduce something one has just thought of that is not directly part of the conversation.
I was talking to Phil yesterday. Oh, by the way, he sends you his regards. Well, he thinks …
Janet wants to talk to you about advertising. Incidentally, she’s lost a lot of weight. Anyway, it seems the budget…
These two expressions are sometimes used to change the subject completely. Freddy’s had another crash. discourse markers Oh, yes? Poor old chap. By the way, have you heard from Joan recently?
Lovely sunset. discourse markers Yes, isn’t it? Oh, incidentally, what happened to that bike I lent you?
(All) right, now
and OK are often used informally by teachers, lecturers and people giving instructions, to indicate that a new section of the discourse is starting.
Any questions? Right, let’s have a word about tomorrow’s arrangements. Now, I’d like to say something about the exam …
Is that all clear? OK, now has anybody ever wondered why it’s impossible to tickle yourself? …
9 return to previous subject
to return to the previous point (formal); as I was saying (informal)
These expressions are used to return to an earlier subject after an interruption or a brief change of subject.
… especially in France. To return to the previous point, non-European historians …
… on the roof-Jeremy, put the cat down, please. As I was saying, if Jack gets up on the roof and looks at the tiles …
10 structuring
first(ly), first of all, second(ly), third(ly) etc; lastly; finally; to begin with; to start with; in the first!second!third place; for one thing (informal); for another thing (informal)
We use these to show the structure of what we are saying.
First(ly), we need somewhere to live. Second(ly), we need to find work. There are three reasons why I don’t want to dance with you. To start with, my feet hurt. For another thing, you can’t dance. And lastly, …
Firstly, secondly
etc are more formal than first, second etc.
For at first, see at first and first. For at last, see finally, at last, in the end and at the end.
11 adding
moreover (very formal); furthermore (formal); in addition’, as well as that, on top of that (informal); another thing is (informal); what is more; also; besides; in any case
These expressions introduce additional information or arguments.
The Prime Minister is unwilling to admit that he can ever be mistaken.
Moreover, he is totally incapable …
The peasants are desperately short of food. Furthermore / In addition, they urgently need doctors and medical supplies.
She borrowed my bike and never gave it back. And as well as that / on top of that / what is more, she broke the lawnmower and then pretended she hadn’t.
If Janet and Pete come and stay, where’s Mary going to sleep? Another thing is, we can’t go away next weekend if they’re here.
Her father was out of work. Also, her mother was in poor health.
Besides and in any case can add an extra, more conclusive fact or argument. What are you trying to get a job as a secretary for? You’d never manage to work eight hours a day. Besides / In any case, you can’t type.
12 generalising
on the whole; in general; in all/ most/ many/some cases; broadly speaking; by and large; to a great extent; to some extent; apart from …; except for
These expressions say how far the speaker/writer thinks a generalisation is true.
On the whole, I had a happy childhood.
In general, we are satisfied with the work.
In most cases, people will be nice to you if you are nice to them.
Broadly speaking, teachers are overworked and underpaid.
By and large, this is a pleasant place to live.
To a great extent, a person’s character is formed by the age of eight.
Apart from and except for (see besides, except and apart from) introduce exceptions to generalisations. Apart from the soup, I thought the meal was excellent.
Except for Sally, they all seemed pretty sensible.
13 giving examples
for instance; for example; e.g.; in particular
These expressions introduce particular examples to illustrate what has been said.
People often behave strangely when they’re abroad. Take Mrs Ellis, for example / for instance, …
In writing, the abbreviation e.g. (Latin exempli gratia), pronounced /i: ‘d3i:/, is often used to mean ‘for example’.
Some common minerals, e.g. silica or olivine, …
In particular
focuses on a special example.
We are not at all happy with the work you did on the new kitchen. In particular, we consider that the quality of wood used …
14 logical consequence
therefore (formal); as a result (formal); consequently (formal); so; then
These expressions show that what is said follows logically from what was said before.
She was therefore unable to avoid an unwelcome marriage.
So she had to get married to a man she didn’t like.
The last bus has gone. discourse markers Then we’re going to have to walk.
Therefore
is used in logical, mathematical and scientific proofs.
Therefore 2x – 15 – 17y + 6.
So
is often used as a general-purpose connector, rather like and, in speech. So anyway, this man came up to me and said ‘Have you got a light?’
So I told him no, I hadn’t. So he looked at me and …
For the difference between so and then, see so conjunction and then.
15 making things clear; giving details
I mean-, actually; that is to say; in other words
We use I mean (see mean) when we make things clearer or give more details.
It was a terrible evening. I mean, they all sat round and talked politics. Actually (see actual ly) can introduce details, especially when these are unexpected.
Tommy’s really stupid. He actually still believes in Father Christmas.
That is to say
and in other words are used when the speaker/writer says something again in another way.
We cannot continue with the deal on this basis. That is to say / In other words, unless you can bring down the price we shall have to cancel the order.
16 softening and correcting
I think; I feel; I reckon (informal); I guess (informal); in my view/opinion (formal); apparently; so to speak; more or less; sort of (informal); kind of (informal); well; really; that is to say; at least; I’m afraid; I suppose; or rather; actually; I mean
I think I feel I reckon! guess
and in my view! opinion are used to make opinions and statements sound less dogmatic – they suggest that the speaker is just giving a personal opinion, with which other people may disagree.
I think you ought to try again.
I really feel she’s making a mistake.
I reckon/guess she just doesn’t respect you, Bill.
In my view/opinion, it would be better to wait until July.
Apparently
can be used to say that the speaker has got his/her information from somebody else (and perhaps does not guarantee that it is true).
Have you heard? Apparently Susie’s pregnant again.
So to speak, more or less
and sortlkind o/(see sort of, kind of and type of) are used to show that one is not speaking very exactly, or to soften something which might upset other people. Well and really can also be used to soften.
I sort of think we ought to start going home, perhaps, really.
I kind of think it’s more or less a crime.
Do you like it? discourse markers Well, yes, it’s all right.
That is to say
and at least can be used to ‘back down’ from something too strong or definite that one has said.
I’m not working for you again. Well, that’s to say, not unless you put my wages up.
Ghosts don’t exist. At least, I’ve never seen one.
I’m afraid
(see afraid.2) is apologetic: it can introduce a polite refusal, or bad news.
I’m afraid I can’t help you. I’m afraid I forgot to buy the stamps.
I suppose
can be used to enquire politely about something (respectfully inviting an affirmative answer).
I suppose you’re very busy just at the moment?
It can also be used to suggest unwilling agreement.
Can you help me for a minute? discourse markers I suppose so.
Actually
(see actual ly) can correct misunderstandings.
Hello, John. discourse markersActually, my name’s Andy.
Well
can soften corrections, suggesting ‘That’s nearly right’.
You live in Oxford, don’t you?discourse markers Well, near Oxford.
Or rather
is used to correct oneself.
I’m seeing him in May – or rather early June.
I mean
(see mean) can be used to correct oneself or to soften.
Let’s meet next Monday – I mean Tuesday.
She’s not very nice. I mean, I know some people like her, but…
17 gaining time
let me see; let’s see; well; you know; I don’t know; I mean; kind of, sort of
Expressions of this kind (often called ‘fillers’) give the speaker time to think. How much are you selling it for?discourse markers Well, let me see …
Why did you do that?discourse markers Oh, well, you know, I don’t know, really, I mean, it just sort of seemed a good idea.
18 showing one’s attitude to what one is saying
honestly; frankly; no doubt
Honestly
can be used to claim that one is speaking sincerely.
Honestly, I never said a word to him about the money.
Both honestly and frankly can introduce critical remarks.
Honestly, John, why do you have to be so rude?
What do you think of my hair?discourse markers Frankly, dear, it’s a disaster.
No doubt
(see no doubt) suggests that the speaker/writer thinks something is probable, but does not know for certain himself/herself.
No doubt the Romans enjoyed telling jokes, just like us.
19 persuading
after all• look; look here
After all
(see after all) suggests ‘this is a strong argument that you haven’t taken into consideration’. Look is more strongly persuasive.
I think we should let her go on holiday alone. After all, she is fifteen – she’s not a child any more.
You can’t go there tomorrow. Look, the trains aren’t running.
Look here
is an angry exclamation meaning ‘You can’t say/do that!’
Look here! What are you doing with my suitcase?
No doubt
can be used to persuade people politely to do things.
No doubt you’ll be paying your rent soon?
20 referring to the other person’s expectations
actually (especially BrE); in fact; as a matter of fact; to tell the truth; well
These expressions are used when we show whether somebody’s expectations have been fulfilled or not. Actually (see actual ly) can be used to say that somebody ‘guessed right’.
Did you enjoy your holiday? discourse markersVery much, actually.
Actually, in fact
and as a matter of fact can introduce additional surprising or unexpected information.
The weather was awful. Actually, the campsite got flooded and we had to come home.
Was the concert nice? discourse markers Yes, as a matter of fact it was terrific.
Did you meet the Minister? discourse markers Yes. In fact, he asked us to lunch.
Actually, in fact, as a matter of fact
and to tell the truth can be used to say that the hearer’s expectations were not fulfilled.
How was the holiday?discourse markers Well, actually, we didn’t go.
Where are the carrots? discourse markers Well, in fact / to tell the truth, I forgot to buy them. I hope you passed the exam. discourse markersNo, as a matter of fact, I didn’t.
After a new subject has been announced, well can suggest that something new or surprising is going to be said about it.
What did you think of her boyfriend?discourse markers Well, I was a bit surprised …
You know that new house? Well, you’ll never guess who’s bought it.
21 summing up
in conclusion; to sum up; briefly, in short
These expressions are most common in a formal style.
… In conclusion, then, we can see that Britain’s economic problems were mainly due to lack of industrial investment.
To sum up: most of the committee members supported the idea but a few were against it.
He’s lazy, he’s ignorant and he’s stupid. In short, he’s useless.
For more information consult a good dictionary like Langman, Oxford, Merriam Webster, or Collins.
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