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1 punctuation We usually write abbreviations without full stops in modem British English. Full stops (AmE ‘periods’) are normal in American English. Mr (AmE Mr.) = Mister (not usually written in full) kg (AmE kg.) = kilogram Ltd = limited (company ) 2 initial-letter abbreviations Some abbreviations are made from the first letters of several […]
Some styles of writing and speech have their own special grammar rules, often because of the need to save space or time.1 advertisements and instructionsSmall ads and instructions often leave out articles, subject or object pronouns, forms of be and prepositions.Single man looking for flat Oxford area. Phone 806127 weekends.Job needed urgently. Will do anything […]
how long? present perfectWe use a present perfect to say how long a situation or action has continued up to now. Compare:It’s raining again.It’s been raining since Christmas, (NOT It’s raining since Christmas.)Are you learning English?How long have you been learning? (NOT How long are you learning?) >I hear you’re working at Smiths. present perfect […]
non-progressive verbsSome verbs are not used in progressive forms (see progressive 2: non-progressive verbs), even if the meaning is one for which a progressive form ismore suitable. Common examples are be, have and know.John’s been ill all week, (NOT John’s been being ill…)She’s had a cold since Monday, (NOT She’s been having a cold …)I’ve […]
progressive (or ‘continuous’)formshave/has been + -ing I have been thinking about you.Have you been waiting long?I haven’t been studying very well recently.For double letters in words like sitting, stopping, see spelling 7: doubling final consonants.continuing actions and situationsWe use the present perfect progressive to look back over actions and situations which started in the past […]
causes and origins: Who gave you that?We normally use the present perfect when we are thinking about past events together with their present results (see present perfect 1: basic information.).I can’t come to your party because I’ve broken my leg.However, we usually prefer a past tense when we identify the person, thing or circumstances responsible […]
Thinking about the past and present together We use the present perfect if we are thinking about the past and present together. We do not use the present perfect if we are not thinking about the present. Compare: My sister has learnt French. (She can speak French now.) Shakespeare probably learnt Italian, (NOT Shakespeare has […]
This entry deals with the simple present perfect. For the present perfect progressive, see present perfect 4 forms have/has + past participle I have broken my glasses. Have you finished? She hasn’t phoned. In older English, some present perfect forms were made with be, not have (e.g. Winter is come). This does not normally happen […]
Prepositions are not normally used before infinitives in English. After verb/ noun/adjective + preposition, we usually use the -ing form of a following verb. He insisted on being paid at once, (NOT He insisted on to be paid ..-.) I don’t like the idea of getting married, (NOT … the idea of to get married.) […]
meanings and use It is difficult to learn to use prepositions correctly in a foreign language. Most English prepositions have several different functions (for instance, one well- known dictionary lists eighteen main uses of at), and these may correspond to several different prepositions in another language. At the same time, different prepositions can have very […]